Islam and the dervish orders of Albania
Date: Saturday, September 09 @ 11:45:00 UTC
Topic: Albanian Culture
This material is part of an introduction to their history,
development and current situation.
by
Robert Elsie
1. The spread of Islam in Albania
Before the arrival of the Turks in the Balkan peninsula, the Albanians were all within the
sphere of Christianity: Catholicism in the north and Orthodoxy in the south. The exact border
between these two Christian faiths varied over the centuries in accordance with the political and
military gains or losses of the heirs to the two halves of the Roman Empire. By the end of the
fourteenth century, the third great religion of the Balkans had entered the ring, unfolding its
banners on the eastern horizon.
On 28 June 1389, the Moslem Turks defeated a coalition of
Balkan forces under Serbian leadership at Kosovo Polje, the Plain of the Blackbirds, and
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Ethem Bey Mosque(right) - Tirana, the only place in the world where mosques and churches are side by side
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established themselves as masters of the Balkans. By 1393 they had overrun Shkodra, although
the Venetians were soon able to recover the city and its imposing citadel. The conquest of
Albania continued into the early years of the fifteenth century. The mountain fortress of Kruja
was taken in 1415 and the equally strategic towns of Vlora, Berat and Kanina in southern
Albania fell in 1417. By 1431, the Turks had incorporated all of southern Albania into the
Ottoman Empire and set up a ‘sanjak’ administration with its capital in Gjirokastra, captured in
1419.
Mountainous northern Albania remained in the control of its autonomous tribal leaders,
though now under the suzerain power of the Sultan.
The Turkish conquest did not meet without resistance on the part of the Albanians,
notably under Scanderbeg (1405-1468), prince and now Albanian national hero. Scanderbeg
successfully repulsed thirteen Ottoman incursions, including three major Ottoman sieges of the
citadel of Kruja led by the Sultans themselves (Murad II in 1450, and Mehmet II in 1466 and
1467).
He was widely admired in the Christian world for his resistance to the Turks and given
the title ‘Atleta Christi’ by Pope Calixtus III (r. 1455-1458). Albanian resistance held out until
after Scanderbeg’s death on 17 January 1468 at Lezha (Alessio), but in 1478 the fortress at Kruja
was finally taken by Turkish troops. Shkodra capitulated in 1479 and Durrës fell at last in 1501.
By the end of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire had reached its political zenith and
Albania was now firmly encompassed within it. The coming four centuries of Ottoman
colonization changed the face of the country radically. The new religion, Islam, had wedged
itself between the Catholic north and the Orthodox south of Albania and, with time, was to
become the dominant faith of the country.
During the first decades of Ottoman rule there were few Moslems among the Albanians
themselves. In 1577, we know that northern and central Albania were still staunchly Catholic,
but by the early decades of the seventeenth century, an estimated thirty to fifty percent of the
population of northern Albania had converted to Islam. By 1634, most of Kosovo had already
converted, too. Of the inhabitants of the town of Prizren at the time, for instance, there were
12,000 Moslems, 200 Catholics and 600 Orthodox. By the close of the seventeenth century,
Moslems began to outnumber Christians pretty well throughout the country. Roman Catholicism
and Greek and Serbian Orthodoxy had, after all, been the vehicles of foreign cultures in Albania,
propelled by foreign languages. They were religions to which the Albanians, as opposed to their
Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek neighbours, had only been superficially converted and with which
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they could not so easily identify.
The mass conversion of the Albanian population to Islam is all
the more understandable in view of the heavy poll taxes (haraç) imposed on the rayah, Christian
inhabitants of the Empire. In view of this, many Albanians preferred the best of both worlds and
became so-called Crypto-Christians, - Catholic in the privacy of their homes, but Moslem in
public. Characteristic of the Albanian attitude to matters of religion was the motto: ”Ku është
shpata, është feja” (Where the sword is, is religion). Pressure to convert to Islam increased
during the Russo-Turkish wars of the eighteenth century, although the situation improved for the
Orthodox community temporarily in 1774 with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarci, according to
which Russia became protectress of all Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. At the dawn
of Albanian independence (1912) about two-thirds of the Albanian population were Moslem.
Up to 1929, the Moslem community was headed by the Grand Mufti of Tirana with a
five-member Supreme Council of the Sheriat. Later, a General Council was established with the
chief of the community and four grand muftis, representing Shkodra, Tirana, Korça and
Gjirokastra. Organized Sunni Islam was somewhat weakened in the 1930s when King Zog
(1895-1961) severed all official ties with Moslems outside the country. Nonetheless, according
to Italian statistics from the year 1942, of the total population of Albania of 1,128,143, there
were 779,417 (69%) Moslems including the Bektashi, 232,320 (21%) Orthodox and 116,259
(10%) Catholics. As such, one can estimate today that approximately 70% of Albanians in the
Republic of Albania and about 80% of all Albanians in the Balkans are of Moslem background.
The most devout of these Moslems are no doubt the Albanians of Western Macedonia (the
region of Tetovo and Gostivar), where more elements of traditional culture have been preserved
and maintained than in Albania itself.
There were 1,127 mosques, 1,306 imams and muftis and 17 Islamic primary schools in
Albania itself at the end of the Second World War. From 1945 onwards, the Moslem community,
divided as it was into four districts with a Grand Mufti for each, came increasingly under the
control of the state, in particular by virtue of the law of 26 November 1949. This regulation
required all the religious communities to instil in their members a feeling of loyalty towards the
communist regime. The head of the Moslem community also had to be approved of by the
government Council of Ministers. Some Moslem leaders, such as the Mufti of Shkodra and the
Mufti of Durrës, Mustafa Efendi Varoshi, refused to co-operate with the communist leaders and
were liquidated. Others were imprisoned. An estimated 1,050 of the mosques in Albania
survived unscathed up to 1967, but then, in an unprecedented act of extremism, Islam and all
other religions were simply banned by the communist authorities.
The wilful destruction of Islamic culture in Albania became all the more severe during
the late sixties and early seventies, when almost all the mosques in the country, including some
which had just been restored and were of inestimable cultural value, were demolished or
transformed for other use. A very few buildings were simply locked up and thus survived the
cultural carnage in a more or less recognizable form, among which the Mirahor Mosque of Korça
(1495), the Sultan Mosque (1492) and the Lead Mosque (1553-1554) of Berat, the Murad
Mosque of Vlora (1537-1542), the Naziresha Mosque of Elbasan (pre-1599), the Lead Mosque
of Shkodra (1773-1774) and Et’hem Bey Mosque in Tirana (1793-1794). Islam had ceased to
exist in Albania, at least in public life.
The public practice of religion was first authorized again in December 1990 and the few
remaining mosques, after twenty-four years of closure, began to reopen from January to mid-
March 1991. It was also in this period that the first public celebration of Ramadan was held. The
re-established Sunni Moslem community is now headed by Hafiz Sabri Koçi, who spent twentyone
years of his life in prison and hard labour. Islamic groups from abroad, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Abu Dhabi and Egypt etc, have been active in reviving Islam in Albania and in
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providing desperately needed humanitarian assistance to the impoverished country. Virtually all
towns and villages with a Moslem population now have a mosque or a modest Islamic
community centre.
2. The arrival and presence of the dervish orders
The mediaeval movement of Islamic mysticism, known as Sufism, gave rise to a number
of dervish orders or tarikat, Arabic ‘paths,’ in the Shi’ite tradition. Many of these sects and subsects
penetrated into Albania and Kosovo during the five centuries of Ottoman rule. Their
centres or monasteries were known as tekkes, Alb. teqe. The two most important dervish orders
to have found a home in Albania were the Bektashi and the Halveti. These were followed by the
Rifa’i, the Sa’di, the Kadiri and to a lesser degree by the Tidjani. We also have some information
on the presence on Albanian soil, most often in Kosovo, of the Djelveti, the Sinani, the Bayrami,
the Mevlevi, the Melami, the Nakshbandi, the Badavi, the Jezevi, the Shahzeli and the Desuki.
Each of the tarikat had its own particular origin, but the spiritual differences between them in
Albania were often minimal, matters of detail and specific rites. As such, there was no open
rivalry between the orders, in Albania at least, and members of one order were traditionally wont
to visit the ceremonies of others. Most of the major dervish orders referred to above survived in
Albania up to the Second World War. Their history has been superbly documented in recent
years by the work of French scholars Alexandre Popovic, Nathalie Clayer and Gilles Veinstein.
With the arrival of the communists to power in 1944, the orders, the Bektashi at least,
were initially given the status of an independent religious community and then gradually
liquidated. The smaller orders had virtually disappeared by 1950, whereas the Bektashi survived,
at least nominally, until 1967, when religion was banned in Albania entirely. Since the removal
of the ban on religious activity in December 1990, the Bektashi have managed to return to life,
and some of the other tarikat have begun to show signs of revival, too.
3. The Bektashi order
The Bektashi order is said to have been founded in Anatolia by Haji Bektash Veli (Turk.
Haci Bektas Veli) who lived in the thirteenth century. With the expansion of the Ottoman
Empire, it spread from central Anatolia notably to the Balkans, Greece, Crete and elsewhere,
where the Bektashi served as missionaries of Islam and chaplains to the janissaries.
Little is known of the early history of the Bektashi in Albania though it can be assumed
that they were well established by the late sixteenth to mid-seventeenth century. The Bektashi
themselves trace their entry into Albania to the famous legendary figure Sari Salltëk. Turkish
traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited southern Albania in the summer of 1670, noted a Bektashi
tekke in Kanina near Vlora, describing the site as follows:
”There is also a tekke of Haji Bektash Veli here, which was also endowed by Sinan
Pasha. This tekke is famous throughout Turkey, Arabia and Persia. Here one finds many
devotees of the mystical sciences and the dervish life of poverty. Among them are handsome
young boys. Visitors and pilgrims are fed copious meals from the kitchen and pantry of the tekke
because all the surrounding mountains, vineyards and gardens belong to it. Near the tekke, the
benefactor of the endowment, Ghazi Sinan Pasha, lies buried along with all his household and
retainers in a mausoleum with a lofty dome - may God have mercy on their souls. In short, it is a
rich and famous tekke, beyond my powers to describe” (Seyahatname VIII, 361a).
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The mausoleum referred to by Evliya, now since disappeared, was still subject of
veneration during the visit of Austrian consul Johann Georg von Hahn (1811-1869) in the midnineteenth
century. Hahn reports: ”[The owners of the fortress] are descendants of the first
Turkish conqueror of this region, the famous Sinan Pasha of Konya, whose grave can be seen in
a small tekke at the base of the castle. People come here on pilgrimage from far off, as the Turks
consider Sinan to be a saint.” The Bektashi tekke of Kanina was conferred upon the Halveti
order when the Porte ordered the closure of all Bektashi tekkes in 1826.
Among other early Bektashi monasteries was the tekke in Tetovo (Macedonia), founded
at the end of the sixteenth century. According to legend, Sersem Ali Dede, a vizier under Sultan
Suleyman (1520-1566), saw Bâlim Sultân, second pîr of the Bektashi order, in a dream and
abandoned his post as vizier to become a dervish in the village of Haci Bektas, where the
Bektashi movement arose. Before his death in 1569, he ordered that all his possession be sold
and that the money go to purchasing land for a monastery in Tetovo. The monastery was
constructed accordingly by one Harâbâtî (Harabti) Baba, after whom the tekke is named. This
tekke was expanded in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to include a whole
complex of buildings and a beautiful garden, which still exist today as a hotel complex. From the
early eighteenth century onwards, the tekke in Tetovo served as the mother house (âsitâne) for
many other tekkes in Kosovo and Macedonia.
In 1780 followed the building of a Bektashi tekke in Gjirokastra under Asim Baba.
This
tekke laid the foundations for the Bektashi movement in Albania itself and was of particular
significance in the late nineteenth century. The Albanians were especially receptive to certain
features of Bektashism, namely its traditional tolerance and regard for different religions, and the
related open-minded attitude to practices and belief. Indeed some see Christian and pre-Christian
practices continuing under the liberal umbrella of Bektashism. Furthermore, Bektashis were
receptive to local concerns and language, in contrast to Sunni Islam, which was linked to the
Ottoman capital and the Arabic language. Much of southern Albania and Epirus converted to
Bektashism initially, however, due to the influence of Ali Pasha Tepelena (1759-1822), the
awesome Lion of Janina, who was himself a follower of the order. The order suffered a setback
in Albania in 1826 when Sultan Mahmud II suppressed the janissary corp and ordered the
closure of all Bektashi tekkes in the Ottoman Empire. The Bektashi were, nonetheless, prominent
once again during the years of the Albanian nationalist movement (Alb. Rilindja) in the late
nineteenth century and it is this link, no doubt, which gave rise their surprising popularity. Such
was the level of conversion to Bektashism that it grew into a religious community of its own and
became the fourth religion of Albania.
It is estimated that at the beginning of the twentieth century, 15% of the population of
Albanian were Bektashi, equivalent to one-quarter of all Moslems in the country.
Their
monasteries served as centres for the nationalist movement, in particular for the underground
propagation of Albanian-language books and education. Despite this, the order did not succeed
in becoming the Albanian national religion, as many Bektashi intellectuals had hoped. One
reason for this was their disproportionate concentration in the south of the country (70% of all
Bektashi tekkes were to be found south of Berat and only 3% in the north). In addition,
Bektashism suffered a major setback with the revolt of many Moslems demanding the country’s
return to the Ottoman Empire and, in particular, with the burning and looting of the Albanian
tekkes by Greek extremists during the Balkan War and World War I. At that time, about 80% of
the tekkes were damaged or destroyed completely, an immeasurable cultural loss from which this
Islamic culture never really recovered.
Nonetheless, during their first national congress, held in
Prishta in Skrapar in January 1922, the Bektashi declared themselves autonomous of the Turkish
Bektashi, and after the ban on all dervish orders in Turkey in the autumn of 1925, it was to
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Tirana that the Turkish Bektashi transferred their world headquarters. In Albania they set up a
recognized and independent religious community which existed there until 1967. It was divided
into six districts: Kruja with its centre at the tekke of Fushë Kruja, Elbasan with its headquarters
at the tekke of Krasta, Korça with its headquarters at the tekke of Melçan, Gjirokastra with its
headquarters at the tekke of Asim Baba, Prishta representing Berat and part of Përmet, and Vlora
with its headquarters at the tekke of Frashër. In 1928, Albanian publicist Teki Selenica recorded
the presence of sixty-five babas, meaning theoretically that there were at least sixty-five tekkes
in Albania.
There were also about a dozen Bektashi tekkes in Kosovo. By the mid-1940s there
were an estimated 280 babas and dervishes in Albania, and in the 1960s we know there were still
about fifty Bektashi tekkes in the country and about eighty dervishes, fifteen in Fushë Kruja
alone. By 1993, however, after the collapse of the dictatorship, there were only five babas and
one dervish left alive, and only six tekkes were left standing in any recognizable state.
The Bektashi community, like the other religious communities in Albania, was
persecuted by the communist authorities from the start and many of its rulers soon found their
deaths. Baba Murteza of Kruja died in 1946 after being tortured and thrown from a prison
window. Baba Kamil Glava of Tepelena was executed in 1946 in Gjirokastra and writer Baba Ali
Tomori and Baba Shefket Koshtani of Tepelena were executed the following year. American
anthropologist Frances Trix has published a more or less complete list of Bektashi babas who
suffered during the early years of communist rule (Trix 1995, p. 546-547).
In 1967 the Bektashi community was dissolved entirely when a communist government
edict banned all religious activity in Albania. During the dictatorship there were only two
Albanian tekkes which strove to carry on the tradition: one in Gjakova (Serbocr. Djakovica) in
Kosovo under the direction of Baba Qazim, who died in the late 1980s, and the other in Taylor,
near Detroit (Michigan USA), founded in 1954 and long under the direction of the eminent Baba
Rexhebi (1901-1995) and now led by Baba Flamur.
On 27 January 1991, after almost a quarter of a century of silence in Albania, a
provisional committee for the revival of the Bektashi community was founded in Tirana. Since
that time, the new community, under Baba Reshat Bardhi (b. 1935), has been active in reviving
Bektashi traditions there. The tekke and, at the same time, world headquarters in Tirana was
reopened on 22 March 1991 on the occasion of Nevruz, and the sixth Bektashi national congress
was held in July 1993. There are now six functioning Bektashi tekkes in Albania: Turan (Korça)
under Baba Edmond Ibrahimi, Gjirokastra under Baba Haxhi, Elbasan under Baba Sadik Ibro
(b. 1972), Fushë Kruja under the learned Baba Selim Kaliçani (b. 1922), Tomorica under Baba
Shaban, and Martanesh under Baba Halil Curri. Others are in the process of establishment: Berat,
Shëmbërdhenj (Librazhd), Bllaca and Vlora, where the mausoleum of Kusum Baba was
reopened in April 1998 at an inspiring site overlooking the city. Outside of Albania proper, there
are currently Bektashi tekkes in Gjakova under Baba Mimin and in Tetovo under Baba Tahiri.
The Bektashi religious order has a hierarchical structure as well as specific beliefs, rites
and practices. The main categories in the hierarchy of this faith are the following. The ashik,
Turkish aşık literally ‘lover,’ is the simple Bektashi believer or faithful who has not been
initiated in any way. He is often an individual who has been drawn to a particular baba and has
become devoted to him. The muhib, also meaning ‘one who loves, sympathizer,’ is a spiritual
member of the Bektashi community, i.e. an individual who has received some initiation
involving a ritual purification and a profession of faith, in the course of a ceremony held at a
tekke. After a trial period, a muhib can become a varf ‘dervish.’ The dervish receives a white
headdress called a taj, Alb. taxh from Turkish tac, as well as other garments, lives full-time at a
tekke, and is in a sense the equivalent of a Christian monk. The myxher, from Turkish mücerred
‘person tried by experience,’ is the member of a special category of dervishes, that of the celibate
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dervishes, who wear a ring in their right ear. There has been much controversy in the history of
modern Bektashism about adherence to celibacy. The baba, Alb. atë ‘father,’ is a spiritual
master, equivalent to a sheikh in other dervish orders. Each tekke is normally headed by a baba.
The gjysh, literally ‘grandfather,’ and equivalent to Turkish dede or halife, is the superior of the
babas and is responsible for all the tekkes in a certain region. The gjysh has passed through the
final level of ceremony and wears his white taj with a green cloth band wrapped around it.
Finally, the kryegjysh ‘head grandfather,’ known in Turkish as dede baba, is leader of the
Bektashi order as a whole, chosen from among all the gjysh.
As in Sufism in general, emphasis in Bektashism is on inner meaning rather than the
following of outer convention. Bektashi practices and rites are thus characterized, as mentioned
above, by a certain degree of liberality. Sunni religious leaders have often been scandalized at
the indifference which the Bektashi often seem to show towards some of the tenants of
mainstream Islam. The Bektashi pray only twice a day and not obligatorily in the direction of
Mecca, in contrast to Sunni Moslems who pray five times a day. Bektashi prayers do not
necessarily involve prostration. As with other Moslem, most Bektashi refuse to eat pork, but they
will also not touch turtles, dogs, snakes and, most abhorrent of all, hares. Some Bektashis drink
alcohol and indeed in some Albanian tekkes they make their own raki. Their women participate
on an equally footing with the men in ceremonies and gatherings, something which again
scandalizes some mainstream Moslems and in the past led to wild speculation and rumours about
the goings-on in Bektashi tekkes. The Bektashi are not expected to fast during Ramadan, but they
do fast or at least abstain from drinking during matem, the first ten days of the month of
Muharrem during which the suffering and death of Imam Husein is commemorated. Indeed
during matem, they will drink only bitter yoghurt and lentil soup. After matem follows the feast
of ashura during which a dish is eaten made of cracked wheat, dried fruit, crushed nuts and
cinnamon all cooked together. Nevruz, the Persian new year and birthday of the Prophet Ali, is
also commemorated by the Albanian Bektashi.
Bektashism has a long history which has absorbed influences from various sources.
Among the earliest components of Bektashi doctrines and beliefs are Turkmen heterodoxy, the
ascetic Kalenderi (Qalandari) movement of the 13th-14th centuries inspired by Persian and
Indian mysticism, otherwordly Sufic Melametism (Malamatiyya), the Futuwwa order in the
Middle East, and the gnostic and cabbalistic doctrines of Persian hurufism. It subsequently
evolved in close contact with Shi’ite and Alevite Islam and, in the Balkans at least, took on many
Christian elements.
As to their pantheistic core beliefs, about which the Bektashi can be rather secretive, they
believe in Allah, in Mohammed and in the Prophet Ali, to whom a special position is accorded.
Indeed, Ali, his wife Fatima and their two sons Hasan and Husein are the central figures of
Bektashi and Shi’ite beliefs. Many Bektashi homes have pictures of Ali, considered the
manifestation of God on earth. He is invoked on a variety of occasions by believers with a ”ya,
Ali!” or ”Muhammed-Ali!” The figures of Allah, Mohammed and Ali have come to constitute a
sort of Bektashi trinity. The Bektashi, like other Shi’ites, revere the twelve imams, among whom
Ali in particular of course, and consider themselves descendents of the sixth imam, Jafer Sadik.
Naturally, they also revere Haji Bektash as founder of the order. As to ethics, the Bektashi
adhere to the Turkish formula ”eline, diline, beline sahip ol (Be master of your hands, your
tongue and your loins)” used during initiation ceremonies. Essentially, this means not to steal,
not to lie or talk idly, and not to commit adultery.
A major source of information on Albanian Bektashi beliefs comes from the work
Fletore e Bektashinjet, Bucharest 1896 (Bektashi notebook), written by one of the best known
writers in Albanian literature, Naim bey Frashëri (1846-1900). Frashëri, who was author of
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religious, nationalist and didactic works with an exceptional impact on the Albanian national
awakening in the late nineteenth century, had hoped that the liberal Bektashi beliefs to which he
had been attached since his childhood in the village of Frashër would one day take hold as the
new religion for all of Albania. Since they had their roots both in the Moslem Koran and in the
Christian Bible, the Bektashi could promote unity among their religiously divided people. Naim
Frashëri supported the confessional independence of the Albanian Bektashi movement from the
central pîr evi in the village of Haci Bektas Köy in Anatolia and proposed an Albanian baba or
dede as its leader. He also introduced Albanian terms, which replaced the Turkish ones
previously used by the Albanian Bektashi: Alb. atë ‘father’ for Turkish baba, and Alb. gjysh
‘grandfather’ for Turkish dede, to give his Bektashi religion a national character and unite all
Albanians. The Notebook contains an introductory profession of Bektashi faith and ten spiritual
poems which provide a rare view into the beliefs of the order. It begins as follows:
The Bektashi believe in God the great and truthful, Mohammed Ali, Hadije, Fatima,
Hasan and Husein. In the twelve imams who are: Ali, Hasan, Husein, Zein-al-Abidin,
Mohammed Bakir, Jafer Sadik, Musa Kazim, Ali Riza, Mohammed Teki, Ali Neki, Hasan Askeri,
Mohammed Mehdi. They all have Ali as their father and Fatima as their mother. They also
believe in all the blessed of the past and of the future. For they believe in goodness and worship
it. And just as they believe in and love them, so do they believe in Moses, Mary and Jesus and
their disciples. As a founder they have Jafer Sadik and as their superior Haji Bektash Veli who is
of the same family. All these have said: ”Do good and abstain from evil.” The Bektashi hold
faith to these words. Truth and righteousness, intelligence and wisdom and all goodness reign on
this road. The faith of the Bektashi is a wide road illuminated by wisdom, brotherhood,
friendship, love, humanity and all goodness. On the one side of it are the flowers of knowledge,
on the other side are those of truth. Without knowledge and truth and without brotherhood, no
man can become a true Bektashi. For the Bektashi, the universe is God himself.
Despite such pantheism and universality, Naim Frashëri’s Bektashi beliefs have a
decidedly nationalist flavour:
”The Bektashi are brothers and one soul, not only among one another but to all mankind.
They love other Moslems and Christians as their own soul and behave kindly and gently with all
mankind. But most of all they love their motherland and their fellow countrymen, for this is the
best of all things... May they strive day and night for that nation which calls them father and
which swears by them. May they work together with the foremost citizens and with the elders for
the salvation of Albania and the Albanians, for knowledge and culture for the nation and its
fatherland, for their own language and for all progress and well-being.”
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Classiclady Sep 9, 2006
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